By Hei Sing Tso
Traditional Chinese Stratagem, or Mou Lue (謀略), can be traced back to the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BC) in ancient China. Most people, including scholars in China, hold the view that Mou Lue is purely Machiavellian in nature, completely unrelated to ethics, philosophy, and virtue, operating instead under the principle that the ends justify the means.
Further, the legendary thinker Guiguzi, founder of the ancient School of Diplomacy (Zonghengjia), is commonly known as the pioneer of the discipline of Mou Lue. Guiguzi’s teachings were drastically criticized by mainstream Confucians throughout Chinese history. His work, The Guiguzi, was forbidden for a long time in China, even though many statesmen and officials studied it in private for insights and practical wisdom.
In this article, I will argue that Mou Lue originated from Confucian concepts and was further developed by thinkers and practitioners up to modern times. While this approach is unconventional, I hope it will arouse a more creative understanding of the discipline for both academic and practical purposes.
The Concept of “Jing Quan”
Jing(經)
According to Confucius, Jing means the “normal and constant way of living,” or “the way that one is obliged to practice.” Later, the concept of Jing shifted to Li (禮), which refers to the appropriate manners and rites for living, including the institutions practiced during the Zhou Dynasty. Following the adoption of the Six Classic Texts of Confucianism, known as the Six Treatises (六經), the discipline of Classical Chinese Studies, or Jing Xue (經學), was founded. Consequently, Jing came to refer to the ideas and content within these classic texts. Nevertheless, there is a common thread linking all these different meanings: Jing represents a set of constant and shared ways to live virtuously and appropriately in society, ranging from simple manners to formal institutions in ancient China.
Quan(權)
To Confucius, Quan is the final and highest phase of personal development. Even when a virtuous person follows Li, their development is not complete unless they master Quan. Quan means “the art of weighing.” A gentleman must weigh different circumstances and make an appropriate decision in human affairs. However, Confucius did not provide any specific rules or guidelines on how to exercise the art of Quan. It is very likely he believed that if a gentleman has cultivated a heart of Ren (仁), he will naturally know how to apply Quan.
The idea of Quan was also studied by other schools of thought. Contrary to Confucianism, Taoism (道家) emphasized the concept of Bian (變), or “Change,” rather than Jing. The universe is not in a constant state but is changing continuously; there is no constant way. Zhuang Zhou (莊周), a pioneer of Taoism, viewed Quan as more important than Jing in this changing world, advocating the concept of Quan Bian (權變), or “Weighing and Change.” According to Mohism (墨家), the practice of Quan is not related to certain ethical principles but is an art of making decisions or judgments after weighing different factors in a given circumstance. However, one must exercise this art rationally and with concern for the consequences. The Legalist School (法家) also held the view that a ruler shall practice Quan in political leadership and statecraft.
Tang Dynssty: The trestise of Art of Long and Short
In the Tang Dynasty (618–907), a scholar named Zhao Rui (趙蕤) wrote a book known as the Chang Duan Jing (長短經), or The Treatise on the Art of Long and Short, which commented on statecraft throughout history. The title of Chapter Three is Quan Bian (權變), or “Weighing and Change,” which outlines the two core ideas of the entire book. First of all, everything in society and the state—including political theory, ethics, and institutions—will gradually develop and eventually decay, leading to consequences totally opposite to their original positive purpose.
This is known as the theory of Fan Zhi (反致), or “opposite return.” This is precisely why another name for the book is Fan Jing (反經), or The Treatise of the Opposite. Secondly, since everything is constantly changing, our statecraft must adapt to changing circumstances over time.
There are no constant ethical principles applicable to all eras. Apart from Confucian ideas, even Taoist, Legalist, and concepts from other schools of thought can be applied and blended in different situations. The reason is that ideas from any school of thought, if practiced in reality, will gradually decay and become the opposite of their original intention. Thirdly, the book introduces the art of contrary thinking: if any idea or perspective is right, then its opposite is also right. Further, these two opposites form a dialectical wholeness, a concept fully derived from the Yin-Yang philosophy of the I Ching (Book of Changes).
Feng Dao: A Controversial Stateman
After the collapse of the Tang Dynasty, China entered an age of chaos known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period (五代十國) (875–979). During this period, there was a controversial statesman named Feng Dao (馮道), who served as prime minister for ten rulers across five different dynasties. This seriously contravened the Confucian doctrine of loyalty; hence, Feng Dao was severely criticized by mainstream Confucians throughout history. However, it can be argued that his practical approach to politics exhibited distinct features of Quan Bian.
Firstly, Feng Dao shifted the target of Confucian loyalty from the individual ruler to the state itself. This made a remarkable difference. The interests of the state were broad and long-term, encompassing the daily well-being of the people. This explains why he continued to serve different rulers for the sake of political stability. In doing so, his contributions to governance helped preserve Confucian ideals in the long run.
According to traditional Confucian teachings, or Jing, when a state is “without Dao” (in chaos and lacking virtue), a Confucian follower should retreat. Feng’s insistence on serving in the government clearly contravened Jing. In this context, he exercised the art of Quan by weighing all the circumstances and consequences of the era, ultimately deciding to sacrifice his own reputation to fulfill overarching, long-term goals.
Secondly, he remained indifferent to external criticism. This mirrors a core idea of Yangmingism mentioned below and highlights the importance of inner conviction for a Confucian follower. When exercising the art of Jing-Quan or Quan Bian, a practitioner must not easily succumb to the evaluations of the outside world.
Sung Dynasty: The School of Utility
During the Southern Song Dynasty (1127–1279), a Neo-Confucian trend known as the School of Utility (事功學派) rose to prominence. According to this school, “virtue” and “utility” are of equal importance, with utility defined as actual benefits to the people. To be a righteous person, one must also actively participate in politics and lead people toward well-being. This can be described as a realist school of Confucianism, in contrast to those branches focusing strictly on self-advancement toward moral perfection. However, because conflicts between virtue and utility inevitably arise from time to time, the art of Quan Bian must step in.
To justify Quan Bian, the School of Utility resorted to the study of history. History records the factual events of the past; through its study, one can learn how to adapt to real-world circumstances by balancing virtue and utility. Consequently, Jing (經) and Shi (史), or History, should be combined as a whole rather than separated from each other.
An intriguing work from this period, known as the Ba Mian Feng (八面鋒)—literally meaning Sharpness of Eight Faces—compiled short articles written by prominent scholars of the School of Utility. Its content includes diverse stratagems and principles of statecraft, all illustrated by historical examples. Interestingly, this book became a study manual for students preparing to sit for the imperial civil service examinations. This work exhibits two key features: first, ideas from the Legalist School were incorporated into it; second, it occasionally advised statesmen to exercise the art of Quan Bian to make correct decisions when coping with changing circumstances.
Yangmingnism
In the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), the scholar-statesman Wang Yangming (王陽明) founded the Neo-Confucian School of Mind, or Xinxue (心學). According to this philosophy, truth and virtue cannot be found in the external world; instead, we must turn inward to seek virtue. Our mind—or heart—is the ultimate source of the principles of the cosmos. Further, we gain knowledge of the cosmos and the world through practice, making practice and knowledge two sides of the same coin.
His ideas were revolutionary. For Wang Yangming, it was not sufficient to merely read the Confucian classics to know Jing (經), since these texts serve only as a reference. When making a decision, one must look into their own heart and mind to find their conscience. Regarding the art of Quan (權), Wang adopted a similar approach: a person must use their mind, heart, and conscience to guide their actions. There is no need to seek external, objective criteria or standards to weigh circumstances. As a result, both Jing and Quan are integrated under the umbrella of the mind and heart.
This philosophy mirrors the fundamental approach of Feng Dao, the great practitioner of Quan Bian mentioned above, who believed one should not be easily judged by the external world. However, this does not mean retreating from the world. When engaging with society, we must use our inner mind and heart to do what is right according to our conscience, regardless of public opinion or external judgment. In this view, the subject prevails over the object; the mind is the Dao. Ultimately, a Confucian follower must follow this inner Dao to make their final judgment.
Zhang Zhi Dong, an Expert Quan Bian Practitioner
Zhang Zhidong (張之洞) was a prominent statesman and official in the late Qing Dynasty (1636–1912). He lived during a critical period when China entered the modern age and engaged with the industrial nations of the West. Throughout his political career, he encountered many challenges but remained highly receptive to reforms and changes. Zhang wanted to preserve imperial rule and tradition while simultaneously incorporating new ideas—particularly Western concepts, institutions, and technology—for the purpose of making China strong again.
After studying the I Ching (Book of Changes), Zhang concluded that it is essential for a person to understand any matter thoroughly and comprehensively; this is the capability of Tong (通). If a person cannot comprehend something globally and thoroughly, they have not attained the state of Tong. Zhang’s appreciation of Tong was highly relevant to his exercise of Quan Bian in statecraft and politics. Further, the I Ching states: “When a thing develops fully, it must change; if it changes, then Tong can be achieved; if Tong is achieved, the situation will endure for a long time” (窮則變，變則通，通則久). In this context, Tong means that blockages are removed and everything moves smoothly so that problems can be solved.
Based on the analysis above, Zhang implied three sequential steps for Quan Bian:
- Exploring, reading, and fully understanding ideas, even if they initially seem contrary to tradition and the Confucian Jing (Tong, 通);
- Implementing changes accordingly (Bian, 變);
- Facilitating reforms to solve problems over a long period (Jiu, 久).
Guiguzi and Confucianism
Guiguzi (鬼谷子) was the founder of the School of Diplomacy (縱橫家) and a pioneer in the discipline of Mou Lue (謀略), or traditional Chinese stratagem. Throughout Chinese history, Guiguzi and the followers of his school were severely criticized by mainstream scholars and officials; they were accused of being immoral and relying on deceptive tactics and cunning tricks to achieve selfish goals. However, this is a complete misconception.
The book Guiguzi (鬼谷子) serves as the primary source for his ideas. The first chapter lays down his foundational concepts, as illustrated in the two passages below:
1 – 昔稽古聖人，之在天地間也
- Translation: “In the past, the ancient sages existed between Heaven and Earth.”
A sage (shengren) is an ideal, virtuous person, closely resembling the near-perfect Confucian gentleman. Confucius and Mencius were also revered as sages. Here, “Heaven” (Tian) represents the natural inclinations of the human heart, which are shaped by the cosmos—in other words, it is akin to the Dao of the universe. This closely mirrors the Philosophy of Mind under Yangmingism mentioned above. “Earth” (Di), on the other hand, refers to the concrete circumstances of human affairs and social relations. Hence, according to Guiguzi, a sage must possess knowledge of Heaven while balancing the real-world facts of Earth before making a decision.
2 – 故聖人之在天下也，自古至今，其道一也。變化無窮，各有所歸。
- Translation: “Therefore, when the sages dwell under Heaven, from antiquity to the present day, their Dao remains One. Changes are infinite, yet each returns to its proper place.”
This passage clearly suggests that a sage must uphold the Dao by adopting various methods to cope with continuous change.
It is thus argued that Guiguzi’s ideas are not in total conflict with Confucianism. Rather, he simply shifts the emphasis toward the practice of Quan and Bian, rather than focusing strictly on Jing.
Sun Tsz and Jing Quan
The first chapter of Sun Tzu’s (孫子) The Art of War clearly outlines the concepts of Jing and Quan as follows:
故經之以五事
- Translation: “Therefore, measure it by means of the five factors [Jing].”
After explaining these five considerations, the text states:
因利而制權也
- Translation: “Assess the advantages in order to exercise control through strategic flexibility [Quan].”
Therefore, it can be argued that Sun Tzu’s strategic thoughts were also profoundly influenced by the foundational concepts of Confucianism.
From Jing Quan to 道術(Dao Shu) (Art of Tao)
From the analysis above, it is evident that Confucianism plays a significant role in shaping the wisdom of stratagem throughout Chinese history. Inspired by the I Ching (Book of Changes), Confucian thinkers understood that changes in the universe and human affairs are inevitable. They recognized that all concrete principles, ethics, and doctrines, if applied too rigidly, will inevitably lead to absurd and ineffective consequences.
Under general circumstances and in the normal course of life, adherence to Jing remains ethical and desirable. However, when circumstances change, a righteous gentleman must exercise Quan for the betterment of others. In such situations, one may need to set aside the concrete requirements prescribed by Jing and instead make decisions based on whether they align with the ultimate Dao. This principle is termed Fan Jing He Dao
(反經合道)—acting contrary to Jing but in compliance with the Dao.
Gradually, this philosophy led to the development of the concept of Dao Shu (道術), or the “Art of the Dao.” This term denotes any means, approach, method, policy, or tactic implemented in compliance with the Dao to meet challenges and changes in human affairs. However, Dao Shu was rarely openly expressed in the orthodox discourse of Confucian scholars and statesmen. Conversely, followers of other schools of thought—particularly the School of Diplomacy led by the enigmatic Guiguzi—were also profoundly influenced by the concept of Dao Shu.
Throughout China’s long history, various thinkers and practitioners synthesized these ideas into a unique discipline known as Mou Lue (謀略). Today, the common perception of this term is “wit or trickery by any means to achieve results, amass power, or solve problems when coping with changing circumstances, completely devoid of ultimate principles.” In my view, this is a complete misconception. On the surface, Mou Lue appears closer to the realm of Shu (術), focusing strictly on addressing situational challenges; consequently, those who study Mou Lue can easily become distanced from the foundational element of the Dao.
Conclusion
Confucianism plays a foundational role in shaping the development of Chinese strategic wisdom. Inspired by the I Ching (Book of Changes), Confucian thinkers believed that it is necessary to adapt to changing circumstances, even when doing so appears to contrast with orthodox ethics, dogmas, and principles; this is the origin of Jing-Quan (經權).
However, there is an ultimate restraint and source of guidance when exercising the art of Quan: the supreme wisdom of the Dao. This realization gave rise to the concept of Dao Shu (道術). Influenced implicitly by Dao Shu, thinkers and practitioners throughout history gradually and independently developed the discipline of Mou Lue (謀略).
Nevertheless, most people—including many scholars—have rarely noticed the trace of Dao Shu within Mou Lue. To use an analogy: Jing-Quan is the root, Dao Shu is the trunk, and Mou Lue represents the branches. The entire tree constitutes Chinese strategic wisdom. Ultimately, Mou Lue without the Dao is not true Mou Lue.
Author: Professor Dr. h.c. Hei Sing Tso – President, Guiguzi Stratagem Learning, Hong Kong.
(The opinions expressed in this article belong only to the author).